Discourse Analysis (DA) is the study of language beyond isolated sentences. It examines how language is structured in real-life communication, considering context, meaning, power, and ideology in both spoken and written texts.

Definition of Discourse Analysis

The term discourse refers to extended stretches of language, whether spoken, written, or multimodal (a combination of text, speech, and visual elements). Some of the scholarly definitions are given below.

  • Zellig Harris (1952): "Discourse analysis is the study of language patterns in larger linguistic units beyond the sentence."
  • Michel Foucault (1972): "Discourse shapes and reflects knowledge, power, and social norms."
  • Teun A. van Dijk (1997): "Discourse is the use of language in communication, connected to cognition and society."

Types of Discourse

Discourse can be classified based on its form, function, and domain of usage.

1. Spoken Discourse 

  • It can be found in daily conversations, interviews, debates, speeches, and dialogues. It has some features which include turn-taking, pauses, interruptions, fillers ("uh," "hmm"), and intonation. There are two types of spoken discourses;
    • (a) Casual Conversations are often informal, interactive, and involve quick turn-taking. For example,
      • Person A: "Hey, how's it going?" 
      • Person B: "Good! Just finished work. You?"
      • Person A: "Same here, finally some free time!" 
    • (b) Political Speeches use persuasive language to create unity. For example, "My fellow citizens, we must stand together for a brighter future."

2. Written Discourse 

  • It is often found in books, essays, reports, emails, social media, and newspapers. It is more structured than spoken discourse and follows grammatical conventions. 
  • For example, News Article uses an objective tone and clear factual statements, "The stock market saw a 5% rise following the Prime Minister’s economic reforms."

3. Academic Discourse 

  • It is used in research papers, theses, and lectures. It includes formal language/vocabulary, citations, and argumentation. 
  • For example, Black Skin, White Mask by Frantz Fanon. 

4. Media Discourse 

  • It is found in TV news, blogs, advertisements, and social media and often influences public opinion through framing. 
  • For example, headlines like "Government improves economy" & "Government claims economy is improving." In these headlines, the first suggests factual improvement, while the second implies doubt.

5. Political Discourse 

  • It is used by politicians, activists, and government officials. It focuses on persuasion, ideology, and rhetoric by using inclusive language ("we") and a visionary tone to inspire trust. 
  • For example, "We will rebuild our nation with new opportunities for every citizen."

6. Legal Discourse 

  • It is found in contracts, laws, court rulings, and legal arguments. It uses technical terms, formal, precise, impersonal language and rigid structures. 
  • For example, "The accused shall be held accountable under Article 32 of the Penal Code."

7. Medical Discourse 

  • It is used in doctor-patient communication, medical journals, and prescriptions. It relies on specialized terminology and clarity, and uses diagnostic certainty and medical terminology. 
  • For example, "The patient exhibits symptoms consistent with Type 2 diabetes and requires further tests."

Key Concepts in Discourse Analysis

1. Context in Discourse

Context determines meaning beyond the words themselves. It includes:

  • Situational Context: Where, when, and with whom the conversation happens.
  • Cultural Context: Social norms and shared knowledge of participants.

Example:

  • Saying "It’s cold here" in a normal conversation vs. in a weather report—both have different implications.

2. Cohesion and Coherence

  • Cohesion: The grammatical and lexical links between sentences.
  • Coherence: Logical flow and meaningful organization.

Example (Cohesion):

  • "John loves cricket. He plays every weekend." (He refers to John, creating cohesion.)

Example (Coherence):

  • "I was late for work. The bus broke down." (Logical cause-effect relation.)

3. Turn-Taking in Conversations

  • A set of rules that govern who speaks when in a conversation.
  • Features: Interruptions, pauses, and overlaps.

Example:

  • Person A: "Do you want coffee or tea?"
  • Person B: "Tea, please."
  • Analysis: Smooth turn-taking without overlap.

4. Speech Acts (John Searle, 1969)

Speech acts analyze what actions an utterance performs.

  • Locutionary Act: The actual words spoken.
  • Illocutionary Act: The intended meaning (e.g., request, promise).
  • Perlocutionary Act: The effect on the listener.

Example:

  • "Can you pass the salt?" (Indirect request rather than a yes/no question.)

5. Power and Ideology in Discourse

  • Norman Fairclough (1989) introduced Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to study language, power, and ideology.

Example:

  • Political speech: "We must protect our borders from external threats."
  • Analysis: Suggests fear-based persuasion, reinforcing power structures.

Methods of Discourse Analysis

1. Structural Analysis

  • Focuses on grammar, syntax, and sentence structure.
  • Example: Passive vs. active voice in political speeches.

2. Functional Analysis

  • Studies how language performs social functions (e.g., advertising persuasion).

3. Conversation Analysis (CA)

  • Examines spoken discourse patterns like pauses and intonation.

4. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

  • Explores how power and ideology shape discourse.

Example:

  • Textbook Language: "Europe discovered America."
  • Analysis: Reflects Eurocentric bias, ignoring indigenous perspectives.

Applications of Discourse Analysis

  • Education: Studying classroom communication.
  • Media Studies: Analyzing bias in news.
  • Politics: Examining campaign speeches.
  • Business: Enhancing corporate communication.
  • AI & Technology: Improving chatbot interactions.

Discourse Analysis is a crucial linguistic tool that helps us understand how meaning, interaction, and power operate in language. It is widely used in politics, media, education, and artificial intelligence.