Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies the sound systems of languages, focusing on how sounds function, interact, and create meaning within a particular language. It differs from phonetics, which deals with the physical production and perception of sounds, whereas phonology examines their abstract, rule-governed patterns in speech.

Example:

  • The English sounds /p/ and /b/ are phonologically distinct because they differentiate words like pat and bat.

Aspects of Phonology

1. Phonemes and Allophones

Phonemes: A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word.

Examples:

  • /t/ and /d/ in ten and den (changing one phoneme changes the word's meaning).
  • /k/ and /g/ in coat and goat.

Allophones: An allophone is a variant of a phoneme that does not change the meaning of a word but occurs due to phonetic context.

Examples:

  • The /t/ in top (aspirated [tʰ]) vs. stop (unaspirated [t]).
  • The /l/ in light (clear [l]) vs. pool (dark [ɫ]).

2. Phonological Rules

Phonological rules describe how phonemes are pronounced in different contexts.

Types of Phonological Rules:

Assimilation: A sound becomes more like a neighboring sound.

  • Example: input → [ɪnpʊt] → [ɪmpʊt] (the /n/ changes to /m/ before /p/).

Dissimilation: A sound becomes less like a neighboring sound.

  • Example: fifths → [fɪfts] (the second /f/ drops out to ease pronunciation).

Insertion (Epenthesis): A sound is added between two others.

  • Example: athlete is sometimes pronounced as [æθəlit].

Deletion: A sound is removed from a word.

  • Example: friendship → [frɛnʃɪp] (the /d/ is dropped).

Metathesis: Two sounds switch places.

  • Example: comfortable → [kʌmftɚbl] instead of [kʌmfɚtəbl].

3. Syllable Structure

A syllable is a unit of pronunciation that typically contains a vowel and may include consonants.

Syllable Components:

  • Onset: The consonant(s) before the vowel (c in cat).
  • Nucleus: The central vowel sound (a in cat).
  • Coda: The consonant(s) after the vowel (t in cat).

Example of Syllable Structure:

  • Cat → CVC (Consonant-Vowel-Consonant)
  • Tree → CCV
  • Strengths → CCCVCCC

4. Stress and Intonation

Stress: Stress refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables in words.

Examples:

  • 'PREsent (noun) vs. pre'SENT (verb).
  • 'IMportant vs. im'porTANT (incorrect).

Intonation: Intonation is the rise and fall of pitch in speech, which affects meaning.

Examples:

  • Statement: She is coming. (↘ falling intonation).
  • Question: Is she coming? (↗ rising intonation).

5. Phonotactics

Phonotactics refers to the rules that govern which sound combinations are allowed in a language.

Examples:

  • In English, ng ([ŋ]) cannot appear at the beginning of a word (ngood ❌).
  • In Spanish, words do not start with [st-], so Spain is España with an added vowel.

6. Minimal Pairs and Contrastive Distribution

Minimal Pairs: Words that differ by only one phoneme and have different meanings.

Examples:

  • bit vs. bat (/ɪ/ vs. /æ/).
  • sip vs. zip (/s/ vs. /z/).

Contrastive Distribution: Sounds occur in the same environment but create different words (e.g., /p/ vs. /b/ in English).

7. Prosodic Features (Suprasegmentals)

Prosody includes features beyond individual sounds, affecting the meaning of speech.

  • Pitch: Highness or lowness of sound. (e.g., Mandarin Chinese uses pitch to distinguish words: mā vs. má vs. mǎ vs. mà).
  • Length: Vowel/consonant duration (e.g., ship vs. sheep in English).
  • Rhythm: The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech.

Phonology is essential to understanding the rules and patterns of sounds in language. It explores phonemes, allophones, phonological rules, stress, intonation, syllables, and more. Mastering phonology allows for better pronunciation, comprehension, and linguistic analysis.